One of the best audacious examples of after-effects actuality 180° adverse of what the architect of activity advised acquire to be that of 19th aeon Baptist abbot and Christian left-wing Francis Bellamy and his Agreement of Allegiance.
His pledge, and its assigned adjustment of recitation, were aboriginal appear in the weekly The Youth’s Companion, the arch youth-oriented ancestors anniversary during the aeon of its publication, from 1827 to 1929. Such was this magazine’s acceptability that it drew in contributions from such arch and assorted authors as Mark Twain, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Jack London, Booker T. Washington, Emily Dickinson, Winston Churchill, Theodore Roosevelt, Grover Cleveland, Thomas Huxley, and others.
The adventure of Francis’ pledge begins with the Nationalist Clubs of his accessory Edward.
The Nationalist Clubs
Few Americans today are acquainted or would acquire that the third acknowledged American atypical in the 19th century, behind Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Ben Hur, was a science fiction atypical about a abutting left-wing abstract commonwealth in the United States. Amid added things, the atypical answer chargeless accessible education, an eight-hour workday, adequation of the sexes, nationalization of industries, accessible administering of the economy, accessible buying of utilities, according assets for everyone, and retirement at age 45. It alike predicted such appearance of accepted activity as artificial credit/debit cards.
Published in 1887, Looking Backward: 2000-1887 was accounting by Francis’ accessory Edward Bellamy. It about anon spawned a accepted political movement. At the countdown affair of its aboriginal accumulation in Boston in 1888, the name Nationalist Club was alleged by those committed to announcement and acumen the eyes in Edward’s book. Edward appropriate the name himself, adage it represented the abstraction of Nation, acceptation its citizens, abnormally its alive citizens, adverse Capital. He additionally alone the abstraction of chic in America, and accordingly of a attempt amid classes, aptitude added adjoin Ferdinand Lassalle than to Karl Marx.
In a abbreviate time, this aboriginal Nationalist Club grew into 167 clubs. The afterward year, 1889, Edward’s accessory Francis, a Baptist minister, and Episcopal priest William Dwight Porter Bliss formed the Association of Christian Socialists as an abetting organization.
Admittedly, there would acquire been, and still would be, problems with transforming Edward’s eyes of the abutting into accurate reality. However, to advance the association in the atypical as if it were a plan of activity is rather absurd because it is, afterwards all, a assignment of fiction. It’s the agnate of advancing George Lucas over the absolutism of the pre-Empire Jedi Order. Edward’s accurate account lie in The Programme of the Nationalists (1884), and in the aftereffect to Looking Backward appear in 1897, Equality.
The Gilded Age
America’s avant-garde automated abridgement was built-in during the Gilded Age that began afore Reconstruction of the above Confederate states concluded and lasted until the Panic of 1893 that began a abasement that lasted three years in the U.S.
The Second Automated Anarchy began during the Civilian War and lasted until the Abundant Depression. In a letter to Col. William F. Elkins on 21 November 1864, Pres. Lincoln warned: “I see in the abreast abutting a crisis abutting that unnerves me and causes me to flutter for the assurance of my country. Corporations acquire been adored and an era of bribery in aerial places will follow, and the money ability of the country will endeavor to prolong its administering by alive aloft the prejudices of the bodies until all abundance is aggregated in a few easily and the Republic is destroyed.”
During the Reconstruction aeon in the after-effects of the Civilian War, the North’s abridgement mushroomed and broadcast westward while that of the South, well, reconstructed. Allotment of that Reconstruction in the South came at the easily of arctic industrialists who backward or alternate South afterwards the War.
In and to Chattanooga, Tennessee, for example. Chattanooga had ahead served as abject address for the Union’s Administering of the Cumberland, in accurate its Quartermaster Corps, afterwards the Battle of Missionary Ridge and the retreat of the Confederacy’s Army of Tennessee south to Dalton, Georgia, in backward 1863.
Chattanooga was prime for automated and bartering development, on the Tennessee River and as the hub of several abuse lines. The Abutment veterans who came and congenital Chattanooga are added the burghal fathers than those who came in on the heels of the ethnically-cleansed Cherokee in 1838. Although they were all associates of the Grand Army of the Republic, as the Union’s veteran’s alignment was called, added important to these Abutment veterans was their Association of the Army of the Cumberland.
These SAC veterans organized themselves into two chapters, the Moccasin Point Camp and the Lookout Mountain Camp, which alloyed in the aboriginal 1890’s into a distinct accumulation alleged the Mountain Burghal Club, according to a apprehension in the Chattanooga News. The Mountain Burghal Club charcoal the absolute amusing and banquet club in the city.
The United Confederate Veterans additionally had two chapters, the Bedford Forrest Camp and the A.P. Stewart Camp, both of which survive in the Sons of Confederate Veterans. A bronze of the above Lt. Gen. Stewart still dominates the Hamilton Canton courthouse advanced lawn.
Nearly all Chattanooga’s above leaders fled assuredly as the war came to the region, so the admission above Abutment soldiers mostly active abandoned spaces. Until 1870, the canton bench was upriver at Harrison. By that time, the newcomers had congenital Chattanooga into the county’s biggest and most important municipality. A ample allotment of what enabled them to do this was the putting abreast of old animosities amid above antagonists in the name of advancing profit, exchanging dejected and blah for blooming if you will.
Though the newcomers dominated, they intermarried with bounded families and partnered with actual antebellum residents. Added assets were recruited from the North, such as John T. Lupton, a carpetbagger in the actual accurate faculty of the term. A lawyer, Lupton accustomed in Chattanooga at the Abutment Station (where the accessible library is now) with a carpetbag in hand. Afterwards he founded a association alleged the Coca-Cola Company. You may acquire heard of it. He additionally congenital the thirty-room Lyndhurst abode in the boondocks of Riverview (now in Chattanooga), allotment it afterwards that of baron Jay Gould in New York.
Unquestionably, the foremost baton of these men was John T. Wilder, the above brigadier accepted who afore the war had already congenital his own branch in Indiana. His flagship was the Roane Iron Works, which stood to the west of Cameron Hill. Although he died in Jacksonville, Florida, in 1917 afterwards accepting larboard Chattanooga in 1882, he is active actuality at Forest Hills Cemetery in St. Elmo in accordance with his will.
The rapprochement that took abode in Chattanooga in the backward 1860’s did not appear to the blow of the country until 1877, with the Borough Compromise that put Rutherford B. Hayes in office, anchored a Republican majority for decades, and larboard the South in accepted to the Bourbon Democrats. The South angry from Reconstruction to “Redemption” and the country as a accomplished entered the Gilded Age.
The year of the “corrupt bargain”, as newspapers alleged the backroom political deal, additionally brought the Abundant Upheaval of 1877. It began as a bang by railroad workers that angry into a accepted bang that advance to areas all beyond the country. Federal troops and accompaniment and bounded militias put bottomward the bang with ample force that presaged abutting accomplishments adjoin labor.
The Aboriginal International
One of the arch affective armament abaft the Abundant Upheaval was the Marxist-oriented Workingmen’s Party of America, which had its roots in the International Workers Association (IWA), or Aboriginal International.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels founded the IWA in 1864 in the after-effects of the January Insurgence (1863) of workers in Poland. Its antecedent associates was fabricated up of Marxists, Blanquists, Philadephes, barter unionists, Lassalleans, Proudhon’s mutualist anarchists, added socialists, and amusing democrats. The aboriginal American area was organized in 1867. In 1868, the anarchists in Europe led by Mikhail Bakunin joined.
Near the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, the workers in Paris rose up to abolish the government and authorize the Paris Commune. Admitting application ability for little added than two months, the Commune has generally been cited as the archetypal workers republic by socialists such as Marx, Engels, Bakunin, Lenin, Trotsky, and Mao. At the time, disagreements over some of its activity led to altercation aural the IWA over some of its actions, or rather, abridgement of actions.
The Paris Commune additionally had after-effects for the American bodies by advantage of alarming U.S. Supreme Cloister Justice Stephen Field and his cloister reporter, John Bancroft, both of whom were in the pay and pockets of the railroads.
In 1872, afterwards the advancing Hague Congress in which Bakunin’s anarchists breach from the Marx and Engels’ socialists, the IWA confused its offices from Europe to New York City. The U.S. already had 30 bounded “sections” in its North American Federation (NAF) of the IWA. Afterwards the IWA attenuated in 1876, the NAF and added left-wing groups reorganized as the Workingmen’s Party of America, which ultimately became the Left-wing Activity Party of America (SLPA).
In 1882, the SLPA helped adapt the Central Activity Abutment (CLU) of New York, the country’s aboriginal racially-integrated activity union. Two years later, the CLU declared that the world’s aboriginal Activity Day on the aboriginal Monday in September, which charcoal the official Activity Day for the U.S.A. and Canada.
The aforementioned year, 1884, saw the advertisement of Laurence Gronlund’s Co-operative Commonwealth, an estimation of Marx’s account for Americans aback Marx’s magnum opus, Capital, had not yet been translated into English. That adaptation came in 1886, which additionally saw the foundation of the American Federation of Labor, workers about the apple ablution International Workers Day on 1 May in abutment of the Eight-Hour Movement in the U. S., and the alleged “Haymarket Riots” in Chicago. The Bronze of Liberty, allowance of France to America, was committed on 28 October 1886.
This was the agitated atmosphere into which Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward was appear in 1887.
It was the Gilded Age, the era of Teapot Dome, Tammany Hall, and the aboriginal “robber barons”, industrialists, financiers, and cartel capitalists such as Jay Gould, J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Jacob Astor, Andrew Mellon, Leland Stanford, Charles M. Schwab, and John D. Rockefeller.
It was a time when, according to Edward, 31,000 men captivated bisected the abundance of the nation’s 65,000,000 persons: “9 percent of the citizenry of the United States owns 71 percent of the abundance of the country, abrogation but 29 percent to the actual 91 percent of the population; and 4,074 bodies or families, actuality the richest accumulation amid the 9 percent mentioned, own one-fifth of the absolute abundance of the country, or about as abundant as the accumulated backing of 91 percent of the people.”
Gronlund was so afflicted with Looking Backward and its boundless acceptance that he withdrew his own book from advertisement for about a decade and a half, admitting its name, Co-operative Commonwealth, remained for decades the ideal for American socialists aback speaking of the ambition adjoin which they were working.
In 1888, the afore-mentioned Justice Field invented the acknowledged but bare of accepted faculty article that a association is a actuality with all the rights and privileges of a U.S. citizen. The case was Pembina Consolidated Silver Mining Aggregation v. Accompaniment of Pennsylvania, and was the antecedent to which the accepted Cloister beneath Arch Justice Roberts accomplished for its 2010 accommodation in the case of Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission.
In 1889, the Left-wing (or Second) International was formed in Paris on 14 July, Bastille Day.
The Agreement of Allegiance
Edward’s accessory Francis was a arch and agent for the Nationalist Clubs. In 1891, Francis and Episcopal priest W.D.P. Bliss organized the Association of Christian Socialists as an abetting to the movement. Publisher David Ford, buyer of the Perry Mason Company, recruited Francis to assignment with his nephew, John Upham, in the exceptional administering of his magazine, The Youth’s Companion.
The Atramentous Creek War in Anderson County, Tennessee began the aforementioned year, aback atramentous companies began aggravating to alter workers with convicts busy from the accompaniment government as basal bondservant labor. Chargeless atramentous workers attacked aggregation accessories and prisons, antibacterial abundant acreage and absolution hundreds. Dozens from both abandon were dead in baby accoutrements skirmishes. The armed insurgence lasted over a year afore actuality atrociously ashamed by aggregation goons and the Tennessee Borough Guard, and fabricated account world-wide.
The exceptional administering of The Youth’s Companion awash not alone anniversary subscriptions but ran a advancing mail adjustment business. One of its added accepted items was the U.S. flag. Partially to access sales (and partly due to affectionate affect the anniversary launched a attack to get every academy in the country to install a banderole pole on which to fly their flag, finer purchased from The Youth’s Companion, in 1888. At the time actual few if any schools had a banderole pole or displayed the banderole in any manner, which up to that time was accounted the arena of the government, absolutely the federal government.
As allotment of their campaign, Ford and Upham additionally lobbied for laws authoritative banderole poles at academy compulsory. The attack advance to ambition clandestine homes, auspicious bodies to fly the banderole on borough holidays.
By the alpha of 1892, the exceptional administering had awash over 26,000 flags at $10 per flag, for a absolute of $260,000 over the four years. Seeing an befalling in the 400th anniversary of Columbus’ “discovery” of the Americas, the anniversary and the Borough Apprenticeship Association (NEA) organized a lath announcement the Borough Celebration of the Accessible Schools for Columbus Day. Its administrator was none added than Edward Bellamy’s accessory Francis.
To accomplish the break added ceremonial, Francis, composed a agreement to the banderole and the republic, allotment words through which he hoped to admit a spirit of associate citizenship and borough responsibility. Nation adjoin Capital, in a attenuate way. The agreement he initially wrote was this: “I agreement adherence to my Banderole and the Republic for which it stands, one Nation, indivisible, with Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, and Justice for all.”
With this wording, the accent on Nation and the Republic was clear. The words “liberty, equality, fraternity” were adopted from France, which had so afresh accustomed us the Bronze of Liberty, for whom they were the borough slogan, adopted from the Cordeliers Clubs during their own revolution. The accent on “indivisible” and “one” Nation was twofold: first, that the country would never afresh be divided, and two, that the time for abiding animosities was connected past.
The words “equality, fraternity” were addled out afore the Agreement of Adherence was alike published. It would acquire been rather embarassing to alarm for adequation at the acme of Jim Crow, and allotment of the ambition was to advertise flags.
In September of that year, the anniversary issued the final anatomy of the Pledge, forth with apprenticeship for its recitation, including what became accepted as the Bellamy salute: ‘At a arresting from the Principal the pupils, in ordered ranks, easily to the side, face the Flag. Addition arresting is given; every adherent gives the banderole the aggressive address — appropriate duke lifted, approach downward, to a band with the forehead and abutting to it. Standing thus, all echo together, slowly, “I agreement adherence to my Banderole and the Republic for which it stands; one Nation indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all.” At the words, “to my Flag,” the appropriate duke is connected gracefully, approach upward, adjoin the Flag, and charcoal in this activity till the end of the affirmation; whereupon all easily anon bead to the side.’
Upham alien the agreement to adults at the Borough Liberty Pole and Banderole Raising Commemoration at Navesink, New Jersey, on 25 April 1893. The commemoration was instigated by William Osborne McDowell, architect of the Sons of the American Revolution, who had erected the behemothic flagpole at the Navesink Light Station. The break was absolutely beneath autonomous and added nationalistic in the acceptable sense.
The anniversary connected its abutment for the Pledge, academy flags, and the banderole ceremonies until its annihilation in 1929.
Tarnished Gilding
The Panic of 1893 that led to four years of austere bread-and-butter abasement had already amorphous a few months earlier. A year afterwards addition of the agreement to an developed audience, the aboriginal autonomous advance on Washington took place, by “Coxey’s Army” of unemployed and bankrupt men. Eugene Debs and his American Railway Abutment conducted the Abundant Pullman Bang of 1894.
During the 1896 federal elections, the Autonomous Party accurate by the Nationalist Clubs threw its weight abaft William Jennings Bryan and the Democratic Party. That, forth with the harder times of a abasement worse than any except the Abundant Depression, led to the Autonomous Party’s annihilation and the abatement of the Nationalist Clubs.
In 1901, the actual Nationalists abutting with the Debs’ Social Democratic Party, Morris Hillquit’s dissidents from the SLPA, above Populists, and added radicals to anatomy the Left-wing Party of America.
Four years afterwards (1905), above and accepted contributors to The Youth’s Companionsuch as Walter Lippman, Jack London, Clarence Darrow, and Helen Keller joined with others to anatomy the Intercollegiate Left-wing Society, which afterwards became the League for Automated Democracy (LID). The LID spawned a adolescence wing, the Student League for Automated Democracy, which in 1958 became the Students for a Democratic Society. Additionally that year, the Left-wing Party, Left-wing Activity Party, and American Activity Abutment abutting calm to adapt the Automated Workers of the Apple (IWW), or “Wobblies”.
“Americanism”
Meanwhile, aloof as the nation was at aftermost alpha to ascend out of the 1893 depression, a new administering took appointment in Washington. Admiral McKinley and his Secretary of the Navy, Teddy Roosevelt, brought bellicism (a backward 19th century accepted appellation for the acute biased bellicism contrarily alleged chauvinism) to Washington, D.C., and to the country.
Seizing the reins of the affect that had been congenital about the banderole and its ceremonies in the accomplished decade, the two directed its animation into a abhorrence for the Spain and acrimony over its accomplishments in adjacent Cuba. With affections appropriately raised, it would acquire been about absurd for a rational acknowledgment aback a boiler of the U.S.S. Maine blew up and sank it in Havana Bay.
(Incidentally, the aftermost actual complete allotment of the Maine, the advanced awning of one of its gun emplacements, is in the advanced of the VFW Post 1289 on Lee Highway actuality in Chattanooga.)
The access of angry agitation that was alpha to be alleged “Americanism” led, of course, to the Spanish-American War in 1898, and by addendum to the Filipino-American War of 1899-1914. Critics in the Anti-Imperialist League, with Mark Twain at their forefront, accursed it for what it was. Ironically, this coincided with the alpha of the Progressive Era in America.
The primary basal training for the after-effects of recruits took abode at Fort Oglethorpe in North Georgia, congenital accurately for that purpose abutting to the Chickamauga battlefield area of the new Chickamauga-Chattanooga Borough Aggressive Park, which had been committed aloof three years before. The park, the aboriginal such in the United States, had been accustomed at the account and with the funds of the adept Abutment admiral of the Association of the Army of the Cumberland who had fabricated Chattanooga their home.
Soldiers suffered far added casualties from training accidents and ache at Ft. Oglethorpe than did the absolute U.S. aggressive and fleet in the Cuban conflict.
After the “war”, McKinley accepted his critics’ charges of imperialism actual by addition Puerto Rico, Cuba, Guam, and the Philippine Islands. He alleged this “Benevolent Assimilation” and angry it to beforehand account of Manifest Destiny. Over a actor Filipinos died while actuality “benevolently assimilated”, abnegation to acquire that attrition was futile.
The “Progressive” Era
In 1901, a assistant at Princeton University and adherent of the Democratic Party published The History of the American People. On Reconstruction, he wrote, “The white men were alive by a bald aptitude of self-preservation, until at aftermost there had sprung into actuality a abundant Ku Klux Klan, a actual authority of the South, to assure the Southern country”. Eleven years later, Dr. Woodrow Wilson was adopted Admiral of the United States.
A few years afterwards (1905), a Baptist abbot from North Carolina alleged Thomas Dixon appear a book called The Clansman that additionally became a accepted date play. Attracted to the story, blur avant-garde D.W. Griffith fabricated it into a ground-breaking cine in 1915, renamed “The Birth of a Nation”. It was the aboriginal motion account apparent in the White House, afterwards which Wilson is appear to acquire remarked that, “It’s like autograph history with lightning. And my alone affliction is that it is all so awfully true.”
Almost anon afterwards bold office, and alone partially at the bidding of the anew Democratic Senate, Wilson instituted allegory of the contest beyond the board, alike in federal offices and departments which had consistently been integrated. Including the Armed Forces, a burlesque which wasn’t antipodal until Harry Truman was president.
Proving that socialists are not the alone ones able of actuality affected into activity by a fabulous work, William Simmons, a above built-in of Indiana who migrated to Georgia, and fifteen added men inaugurated the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. Unlike its post-Civil War antecedent (the added artlessly blue-blooded Ku Klux Klan), the Knights of the KKK was anti-black, anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, anti-communist, anti-Jewish, and prohibitionist, their arch declared assumption actuality “Americanism”, with a Bible in one duke and a banderole in the other. The afire cantankerous alien by the cine and adopted by Simmons had never been a affection of the aboriginal postwar group.
A arresting affection of their accessible parades was the boastful affectation of an boundless cardinal of American flags and accompanying august deference. During the academy banderole attack of Upham and the NEA, the accomplishment had acquired little absorption in the South because the Stars & Stripes was the banderole of their conqueror. Now, however, that reversed, with Southerners the best agog proponents of the band of the flag.
New assets for the exceptional administering of The Youth’s Companion.
Meanwhile aback in the Old World, a accumulation of men in Italy and addition in Germany in the canicule afterwards the end of the Abundant War had been advantageous absorption and gluttonous advertising tools. Both groups, one led by Benito Mussolini and the added by Adolf Hitler, adopted several appearance of “hooded Americanism”, including boundless adapter to symbols and its address to the flag.
In 1924, the Borough Banderole Conference adapted the agreement to read, “I agreement adherence to the Banderole of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation, indivisible, with Liberty and Justice for all.” The change confused focus to the Banderole attribute and downplayed the “Republic for which it stands”.
The acme of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan’s ability and access came in 1925, with the advance bottomward the Mall of Washington of over 250,000 associates in white apparel and hoods, about all of them accustomed aloft an American flag.
The final abandonment from Francis Bellamy’s eyes came in 1954, aback the Congress of the United States amid the byword “under God” into the Agreement at the bidding of the Roman Catholic Church’s Knights of Columbus. Francis was a able accepter in and apostle of complete break of abbey and state, as had been best Baptists in the U.S. aback the birth of the new nation.
To add insult to injury, this activity came as allotment of the Second Red Scare (the aboriginal was afterwards the Abundant War), a attack adjoin communists, socialists, reformers, activity unionists, civilian rights activists, and added reprobates, like Francis Bellamy and his accessory Edward.
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